SONG BIRDS IN SOUTH KALIMANTAN

The current great popularity of and trade in song birds in South Kalimantan appears to be a relatively recent phenomenon, with a strong increase in interest and numbers of birds capture and sold commencing about five years ago Of 76 bird species seen in capivity during the survey period, 48 are native to South Kalimantan. Most or all bird species which are not native arrive in South Kalimantan from Java. Of the species native to South Kalimantan recorded during the survey, one grouping of 23 were represented by less than 5 birds, most presumably caught and sold on a casual basis. Of a second group (5 - 10 seen, mostly in batches of the same species, perhaps caught at the same time) only the migrant Long-tailed Shrike is likely to be purposefully caught for trade as a cage bird. A third grouping (11 - 30 records) tends to include birds which are popular as cage birds, and for which there is an incentive for active catching work.

The fourth grouping (more than 50 records for each species in 20 survey days) contains 9 bird species, the majority of which are clearly the favourite cage bird species. Of these, Pekin Robin and Canary are not native to Indonesia and are popular and bred world-wide as cage birds. Java Sparrow has been introduced to many parts of South-east Asia as a cage bird and has gone wild in some areas. The balance of six native species (Chestnut-capped Thrush, Greater Green Leafbird, White-rumped Shama, Malay Lorikeet, Magpie Robin and Yellow-vented Bulbul) represent the species which are most heavily caught from the wild. None are specialists in tall forests of good structure and the latter two species are confined to secondary growth.
Of the bird species native to South Kalimantan recorded for this report, only one (Blue-wattled Bulbul, confined to a few old growth forest areas of Borneo and Sumatera) has a restricted distribution. All the others are widespread in Borneo and / or South-east Asia and / or the Asian-Australasian region. The native Straw-headed Bulbul has for long been a popular cage bird and numbers have declined greatly, presumably due to excessive collecting of wild birds. This species appears to now be extinct in the wild in upper Tabalong.
Totalling the records of birds of each species observed in captivity during field work for this report provides an indication of the relative abundance of each species in captivity in South Kalimantan. Most or all bird species which are not native to South Kalimantan arrive from Java. This is because (a) in general goods traded into South Kalimantan arrive from or via Java, (b) there is a long tradition of breeding song birds in Java, (c) Java has a very large human population, and (d) Java represents the entry point for species imported from other countries such as China, Europe and Australia. Of the bird species native to South Kalimantan recorded for this report, only one (Blue-wattled Bulbul, confined to a few forest areas of Borneo and Sumatera) has a restricted distribution. All the others are widespread in Borneo and / or South-east Asia and / or the Asian-Australasian region.
Of the species native to South Kalimantan recorded during the survey, one grouping of 23 were represented by less than 5 birds recorded during the survey period. These species (which included kingfisher, pheasant, drongos, kite, flycatchers, barbet, sunbird, owls and babblers) are generally not songbirds and most are presumably caught and sold on a casual basis, rather than as part of any organised capture and trading systems. They may be caught accidentally in traps set for other bird species, or by hunters who catch sleeping, perched birds at night time, or as immature birds taken from nests.
A second group of native species, consisting of species for which between 5 and 10 were seen (mostly in batches of the same species, perhaps caught at the same time), is a mixture including Whistling Duck, Fairy Bluebird, Long-tailed Shrike, Wheatear and Hooded Pitta. The latter three are migrant species and may have been caught on a fortuitous basis. Only the shrike is likely to be purposefully caught for trade as a cage bird; it is not a song bird, but is favoured by some people because of its handsome plumage and predatory habits (it feeds on large insects, often caught in flight). The ducks may be caught for sale as human food.
Birds are caught from the wild by specialist teams from various parts of Tabalong district and Bahalang area (Central Kalimantan), who operate for periods of several days to several weeks at one time based at small roadside camps in the PT. AYI production forest concession. During the survey period, two teams were operating (one specialising in Chestnut-capped Thrush, another in White-rumped Shama). In general, bird catchers appear to be farmers whose normal source of income is sale of rubber tapped in small-holdings. All teams use pulut (a sticky substance normally consisting of latex from Artocarpus trees, sometimes mixed with other ingredients) as the main means to catch birds, with additional birds caught by snare traps and by taking young birds from the nest. There are indications that the Chestnut-capped Thrush has increased in popularity in recent years, that this has led to price increases, and that this species is favoured by more wealthy buyers partly for prestige in their business dealings. For other bird species, the popularity lies with a greater range of people. Many owners belong to formal or informal bird-owners clubs, and enter their birds in periodic competitions organised in the various towns in South Kalimantan. Prices paid by middlemen to the bird catchers in upper Tabalong vary from about IDR1 5,000 – 175,000 per bird, according to species,age and condition of the bird. Retail prices paid by bird-lovers in markets in towns vary from about IDR200,000 – 1,750,000 per bird, according to species, age and singing ability of the bird. The number of people catching wild birds and their catch success rate varies through the year. The reliability of any information given by catchers cannot be verified independently. Thus, there is insufficient information to estimate the number of wild birds caught annually, even in the upper Tabalong forest area. It is estimated that bird catchers in upper Tabalong operate in less than 10% of the overall forest area. For all species except one, gaps in bird distribution due to capture can be filled by young birds moving in from adjacent, non-harvested forest. The exception is Straw-headed Bulbul, which occurs only in lightly forested flat lowland riverside forests. Hence, loss of all birds from one river system is not replaced by movement of birds from elsewhere. It is suggested that no specific actions need to be taken to regulate the capture and sale of wild song birds in South Kalimantan. Capture of these birds provides income to some poor local households. People involved in bird catching may turn to more damaging activities if prevented from catching birds. In any case, implementation of a policy to prevent bird capture would be very difficult under prevailing circumstances and would serve only to engender negative sentiment against the enforcement staff. Attention is drawn, however, to that fact that several diseases can be passed from birds to humans including chlamydiosis, salmonellosis, campylobacteriosis and mycobacteriosis = avian tuberculosis (all bacterial), Newcastle disease, influenza (both viral), giardiasis (protozoan) and allergic alveolitis.

ORCHIDS IN SOUTH KALIMANTAN TROPICAL FOREST

Descriptions of the major genera and species

Grammatophyllum is a small genus consisting of about six species confined to Malaysia and Indonesia. There are two types of growth-form in the genus. One has very long pseudobulbs which are really fleshy stems, bearing many leaves; the other has rather short proportionately thick pseudobulbs which are not covered by leaf-bases, with few leaves at apex. The flowers are similar. They are epiphytes with pseudobulbs in close groups, short or long with few or many leaves. Leaves 2-ranked, not thickened. Inflorescences erect or drooping, with many large flowers. Sepals and petals nearly alike. Lip with 3 low keels; pollinia 2. Grammatophyllum speciosum (Figure 2 and 18), usually called giant orchid was noted in four different localities: at Missim on a durian tree and Km 67, Km 81 and Km 74 high above the ground on old big trees. The stem is up to 3 m long, 5 cm thick, internodes about 4 cm long. Leaves thin, usually about 50-60 cm by 3 cm. Inflorescence to 2 m long with many flowers, the lower ones distant while the upper ones close flowers of about 10 cm wide, sepals and petals widely spreading, pale greenish yellow with large dull orange brown spots. Sepals to 5.5 by 2.5 cm; petals a little wider. Lip smaller, barely 3 cm long within hairy and striped with red

brown; side lobes erect, curving over the column, yellow with brown stripes. Distributed from Sumatera to the Philippines. In Penang they usually flower in July, in Singapore either July or December, and in Bogor usually December and January. Eria is a smaller genus than Dendrobium but still a very extensive one. As in Dendrobium, there is a great range of vegetative form, and it is possible to divide the genus into easily recognizable sections on vegetative characters. Formerly the genus Trichotosia has been merged into the genus Eria but nowadays it has been put in a separate genus again.

Each of the sympoda may short or long, slender or thick and fleshy, bearing one or more leaves, while the basal part is always covered with sheaths. Inflorescence may be lateral or terminal with one to many flowers. Flowers are usually small. Flower structure is the same as in Dendrobium but the base of the lip never form a spur by uniting with the edges of the column-foot. Pollinia 8, in two groups of four. During the collecting trip 23 Eria specimens were collected. Most of them have small flowers with pale color and not ranked as decorative plants, though some of them are attractive when in full flower. Inspite of its many species, none have been used for breeding purposes. E. javanica is said to be the most common Eria species in Indonesia. It has an erect ovoid pseudobulb 5 to 7 cm tall bearing two large foliage leaves. Leaves erect, fleshy to about 50 cm long, 6 cm wide. Inflorescence arising near the top of the pseudobulb to about 60 cm long with flowers almost to the base. Flowers face in all directions, about 4 cm wide, fragrant, white almost pale yellowish, often with purple veins. Distributed from Sumatera to the Philippines. This is one of the few Erias that are sometimes cultivated. Flowers are short-lived.

Eria multiflora is also widely distributed from Sumatera, Java, Peninsular Malaysia to Borneo. Stem up to 30 cm long, of even thickness, 1 cm or more diameter. Leaves elliptical, 4 to 6, thin, commonly about 20 by 2 cm. Inflorescence obliquely ascending from the upper part of the stem, about 12 cm long, bearing small, crowded flowers white with faint pink suffusion on the lip, some very dark red, margins of stigma dark purple. Height of the flowers 2.5 mm, width 1.5 mm.

Agrostophyllum is a genus of about 60 species, extending from Seychelles to the islands of the Pacific. It is one of the most common orchid genera of lowlands and mountains. Several species have very similar vegetative appearance but quite distinct flowers.

Stem is up to one metre long, usually with many internodes, often flattened. Leaves are in two ranks narrow, rather thin with overlapping sheaths. Inflorescence in terminal heads, usually of many flowers. Sepals and petals similar; lip sac-shaped at the base, the hollow divided from the blade by a transverse partition. Column short or relatively long. Pollinia 8, all attached to a single disc.

Two species are common in Indonesia, A. mayus and A. bicuspidatum. In the first one, stem is up to 100 cm long, flattened, widening towards the tip, internodes 2-4 cm long. Leaves many, the lowest small, upper larger, to about 18 by 1.7 cm narrowed slightly towards the tip. Inflorescence head, 2.5 to 3 cm in diameter formed on many short crowded branches. Flowers small, white, the edges of the column and the partition of the lip, purple-red. Lip in natural position 2.5 mm long and wide. A. bicuspidatum, stem up to 20-40 cm long, leaves at right angle to the stem, 0.5- 1.3 cm wide near the base, narrowed slightly to a rounded cleft tip. Inflorescence terminal, flowers white or pale yellow, upper sepal 3-4 mm long, 2 mm wide, erect, concave. Native to Sumatera, Peninsular Malaysia, Java and Borneo.

Among the terrestrial orchids found in the PTAYI forest are Bromheadia finlaysoniana and Eulophia squalida. Bromheadia is a small genus, extending from Sumatera to Papua New Guinea. Seven species occur in Peninsular Malaysia, but no species are found in Java which is very strange. The flowers are much alike in all species, differing in size and small details of colouring; most are pale yellowish with purple and yellow markings. The character which all Bromheadia share is the short life of their flowers which open in the morning and fade by noon.

Bromheadia finlaysoniana is commonly up to 1 m high, basal part with green sheaths. Leaves in two rows, 12 by 3 cm, wider near the base,fleshy. Inflorescence erect, sometimes branched, commonly 10 cm long, bearing flowers 1 or 2 at a time, at internal of about 10 days. Flowers white or cream, sometimes tinted with mauve, sepals 2.8 to 3.8 cm long 6-9 cm wide, acute. Petals a little shorter and wider. Lip 3.3 cm long, side lobes erect, veined with purple. Distributed in Sumatera, Peninsular Malaysia and Borneo. Eulophia is distributed through the tropics, especially in Africa and is seems that Eulophia is much better developed in Africa than in Asia. E. squalida has pseudobulb below ground, almost round, 3 cm in diameter, bearing 3 to 4 leaves. Leaves are stalked, grooved, 50 by 15 cm. Inflorescence to 100 cm long. Sepals 2 by 0.5 cm, acute, the laterals joined at base to the widen column-foot, dull brownish-olive. Petals overarching column with upcurved tips, 1.7 by 0.8 cm, pure white, or base greenish and red. Lip with broad flattened spur pointing downwards, pale mauve with white or cream central area, mauve and brown-veined. Distributed from Sumatera to Papua New Guinea and the Philippines.

Flickengeria was formerly ranked as a section in the genus Dendrobium which was later lifted into a genus which is now fully accepted. Rhizomes rooting along their length, creeping and usually branched, producing stems at intervals. Stems extending for a few nodes then terminating in amore or less thickened internode or pseudobulb. A single leaf is produced from the apex or every pseudobulb; at its base many potential flower buds of which at interval buds develop and one or two flowers are produced at a time. Flowers only last for a single day. Among them F. comata is worth mentioning as it is widely distributed in Indonesia. Stem yellowish, long and much branched. Leaves broad to about 10 by 5 cm. Flowers about 2.5 cm diameter, sepals and petals pale yellowish with pale purple spots. Mid lobe of lip bordered with long yellow hairs. The flowers are very fugacious.

Orchids of Borneo

Orchids of Borneo
The orchid family is one of the largest and most diverse groups of flowering plants in the world. Members of the family can be found throughout the world except for the driest desert and regions permanently covered with snow. Estimates of the total number of orchid species in the world vary from 17,000 to 35,000. Borneo as the third largest island in the world. It has been considered as an “island of fruits” but could equally be referred as an “island of orchids”. Lamb (1991, in Chan et al, 1994) has estimated that 2,500 – 3,000 orchid species are to be found in Borneo or 75% of the Malesian orchid flora. Of these, 30-40% are thought to be endemic to the island. Wood and Cribb (in Chan et al, 1994) have listed over 1,400 species in the island. Some localities in Borneo can be exceedingly rich. For example, Wood, Beamen and Beamen (1993, in Chan et al, 1994) have documented nearly 700 species of orchid for Mount Kinabalu. This represents nearly a fifth of all vascular plants and perhaps nearly a half of the Bornean orchids on this mountain alone. Kersik Luway, west of Kutai in East Kalimantan has been decreed by the local Government for conservation due to its large diversity of orchids found wild in the area.
The rich orchid flora in Borneo may have come about because of several factors. The Borneo flora is enriched by the intermingling of the floristic elements of Laurasia and Gondwana land masses across early dissected land bridges joining Australia and Asia. Thus the Sunda shelf species may reach as far as east as the Cape York Peninsula in Australia, whereas Papua New Guinea species may have reached Borneo (Chan et al, 1994)
PTAYI is a production forest concession in South Kalimantan. As part of effors to document the natural biodiversity of this area, SCKPFP requested the Research and Development Centre for Biology, Bogor, part of the Indonesian Institute of Science, to provide assistance in assessing the orchid flora.

1.2 Main characteristics of orchids
In spite of the immense variety on vegetative parts, the flowers of nearly all orchids are constructed in a very distinct way. A flower of any kind usually has the following parts in successive whorls: sepals (3), petal (2), a column (1) – the combined structure of stamen, style and stigma-, and a lip (1) – a modified form of a petal. In orchids, the pollen is not powdery as in most flowers but is united into small masses called pollinia. Each pollinia contains thousands of pollen grains. A single anther contains 2, 4, 6 or 8 such masses. The orchid is not a parasite; it does not absorb food from the living parts of trees. Some orchids use a tree as a perch on which to establish themselves. These are called epiphytes which make use of decaying bark, dead leaves and other debris from which to extract nourishment, with the help of fungus. Beside the epiphytic orchids, there are also terrestrial orchids (and even aquatic ones) which grow on the ground. Some terrestrial orchids have no green leaves and are called saprophytic orchids. The whole food supply for growth is provided by a fungus which exists partly in the surrounding soil and partly in the roots of the orchids. The fungus breaks down the humus of the soil into a form which the orchids can absorb.

Rattan Diversity of The Upper Tabalong Area

Geographical distribution of rattans in Borneo
The rattans flora has been described for Sabah (Dransfield, 1984), Sarawak (Dransfield, 1992) and Brunei Darussalam (Kirkup, 1999). However, there is no similar treatment for Kalimantan. Hence information on the rattans of Indonesian Borneo has been compiled based mainly on the study of herbarium specimens in Bogor and a literature study. Only one rattan species Calamus impar appears to be a local endemic for South Kalimantan. Local endemics in Sarawak comprise 12 species, Sabah has 11 endemic species, and East Kalimantan two endemic species (C. rugosus and C. spectatissimus). All Calamus found in UTA are quite common and widespread in other parts of Borneo.
For Daemonorops, Sarawak has three local endemic species, Sabah has two species, and Central, East and South Kalimantan each have one taxon species respectively, Daemonorops tenella var. tenella, D. formicata, and D. hystrix var. minor respectively. Ceratolobus are rather widespread. For Korthalsia, Sarawak has one local endemic species (K. furcata) and Sabah also has one species namely K. concolor. The four species of Korthalsia at the UTA are common. However, K. flagellaris, which is very common throughout Borneo was not found in UTA. Plectocomia and Plectocomiopsis are apparently quite widespread in Borneo though the population size is usually small, as in UTA. Two Bornean rattan genera are not represented at UTA (Pogonotium and Retispatha).
The Wider geographical distribution of Borneo rattans
Rattans known to occur in Borneo comprise eight genera namely Calamus (with 72 species), Ceratolobus (three species), Daemonorops (31 species), Korthalsia (13 species), Plectocomia (two species), Plectocomiopsis (three species), Pogonotium (three speies), and Retispatha (one species). The latter is monotypic and the only rattan genus endemic to Borneo. Many species of Calamus are endemic to Borneo and most are local endemics for Sarawak, Sabah, and Brunei (Appendix 7). Calamus amplijugus, C. muricatus, C. pilosellus occure only in Sumatra and Borneo, C. axillaris, C. lobbianus, C. paspalanthus, and C. rugosus occur only in the Malay Peninsula and Borneo.
Five taxa of Calamus that are found in UTA are endemic to Borneo: C. erioacanthus, C. laevigatus var. mucronatus, C. optimus, C. pogonacanthus, and C.pseudoulur. Other species of Calamus found in UTA namely C. paspalanthus occur in Borneo and Sumatra; C. flabellatus, C. laevigatus var. laevigatus, C. manan occur in Borneo, Malay Peninsula and Sumatra; C. caesius and C. scipionum besides Borneo, are found in South Thailand, Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, to Palawan in the Philippines; C. marginatus, besides Borneo is found in Sumatra and Palawan. The very widespread Calamus are C. javensis and C. ornatus; besides Borneo, they are found in South Thailand, Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java to Palawan. Both latter species have varieties in different part of their range.
No endemic species of Ceratolobus were found in UTA. C. subanglatus was found in UTA and occurs in the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra. Three Daemonorops from UTA are endemic for Borneo namely D. atra, D. fissa, and C.kothalsii. Daemonorops draco (besides Borneo), is found in Sumatra.
Daemonorops sabut is also found in the Malay Peninsula, D. hystrix and D. didymophylla are rather widespread. Daemonorops hystrix is found in Sumatra and Java besides in Borneo, whilist D. didymophylla is found in South Thailand, the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra besides Borneo. Four species of Korthalsia from UTA have a widespread distribution. K. echinometra and K. hispida are found in the Malay Peninsula, and Sumatra besides Borneo. K. rostrata is found in South Thailand, the Malay Peninsula, and Sumatra besides Borneo, K. rigida is found through South Thailand, Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, to Palawan besides Borneo. Plectocomia elongata and Plectocomiopsis geminiflora also have widespread distribution, although the latter does not occur in Palawan. Plectocomiopsis mira has the same distribution latter minus South Thailand and Java. The rattan cane or the plant it self is known by local name as rotan or paikat. Every complete rattan name has the prefix paikat, hence Calamus manan is called paikat manau, C. trachycoleus is called paikat irit and so on. The names sega or taman are both used for C. caesius. According to our rattan collector (Pa Mulyadi) the local name ‘taman’ for C. caesius is taken from the word ‘teman’ which mean friend indicates that the cane is closely related the everyday life of the Dayak people. However, many of the local names noted during this survey particularly of rattans which are only used in local market, are in consistent. Local names given here are both Dayak Lawangan and Banjar. Getah and pihikan are used inconsistently for Daemonorops didymophylla, D. fissa, D. korthalsii, and D. draco. Getah refers sap; all these rattans produce a white sap when the young stem is cut. Riwa is used for Plectocomiopsis geminiflora. It is said that the bitter tasting ‘umbut’ (or cabbage i.e. a group of very young leaves) of this species is edible as a cooked vegetable. The very similar jiwa (Plectocomiopsis mira) is said to be very poisonous. It is said that the name jiwa is taken from case a long times ago, when local people died by eating umbut of this latter species. ‘Jiwa’ means soul. Plectocomia elongata is also called jiwa. Paikat lilin is used for Calamus flabellatus and C. javensis, but is applied for very slender canes of two or three milimeter in diameter. The name ‘Pulut’ means sticky, it is applied for any smaller diameter cane which is sticky when the fresh cane is bent. The name is used for slender forms of Korthalsia rigida, Calamus flabellatus and Ceratolobus subangulatus. ‘Sembuli’ is used for Calamus erioacanthus and similar taxa namely C. pogonacanthus and C. pseudolur. Siit is used for Calamus marginatus, C. paspalanthus, and Daemonorops atra. Names consistently used for one species only are ayah pipit, dahanan, gelang, irit, manau, minung, raung, riwa, seko, talusuk, too, and tunggal (Appendix 2). ‘Dahanan’ (meaning “branched) is used for the robust form of Korthalsia rigida. It is true that K. rigida has branches, but the entire genus Korthalsia has this feature. ‘Gelang’ means bracelet, the name is used for rattan which has leaf sheaths covered by complete or partial collars and tipped with black and brown horse-hair-like spines. The “collars” form horizontal bracelets at the leaf sheath, hence it is applied for Daemonorops sabut. In Banjar language paikat gelang is bamulan, paikat getah is dendek, and paikat seko is buyung.
Most of the rattan species identified in UTA have a wide distribution in Borneo as well as outside Borneo. Most occur in lowland humid rainforests. Paikat manau (Calamus manan) as well as paikat suko (Calamus optimus) grow well in lowlands and hills up to 700 m above sea level in rather dry soil. Paikat taman (Calamus caesius) needs more humid soil close to streams. Ecological requirements such as soil type and moisture, micro climatic and light requirements for growing economic rattans species to produce high quality cane are not fully understand.

The importance of termites in tropical ecosystems

The importance of termites in tropical ecosystems

Termites (Insecta: Isoptera) are predominantly tropical in distribution. Their species richness is highest in lowland equatorial rain forests, and generally declines with increasing latitude and altitude (Collins 1983; Eggleton et al., 1994; Jones 2000). Termite survival is limited by low temperatures and high aridity, and very few species occur beyond 45° latitude (Collins 1989) or above 1800m altitude (Collins 1980; Jones 2000). Recent studies (Eggleton 2000) indicate that the forests of West Africa have the highest termite diversity, closely followed by South America. The forests of Southeast Asia and Madagascar are considerably lower in species richness. These regional diversity anomalies are also associated with significant differences in clade and functional diversity (Eggleton 2000; Davies, 2001).

Termites are at the ecological centre of many tropical ecosystems (Wilson 1992). They can achieve very high population densities. For example, in the forests of southern Cameroon, termites are one of the most numerous of all arthropod groups (Watt et al., 1997) with abundances of up to 10,000 m^-2, and live biomass densities up to 100 g m^-2 (Eggleton et al., 1996). Across the Isoptera, a wide range of dietary, foraging and nesting habits occur, but many species show a high degree of resource specialization (Wood 1978; Collins 1989; Sleaford et al., 1996). A few species feed on living plant tissue but most are detritivores, feeding on dead plant material along a humification gradient, from dead wood and leaf-litter to humus in the soil (Donovan et al., in press). As the dominant arthropod detritivores, termites are important in decomposition processes (Wood & Sands 1978; Matsumoto & Abe 1979; Collins 1983) and play a central role as mediators of nutrient and carbon fluxes (Jones 1990; Lawton et al., 1996; Bignell et al., 1997; Tayasu et al., 1997; Eggleton et al., 1999). Termite activity, such as mound-building, subterranean tunnelling and soil-feeding, is thought to have a positive effect upon soil structure and quality (Lee & Wood 1971; Lobry de Bruyn & Conacher 1990; Black & Okwakol 1997; Holt & Lepage 2000; Donovan et al., 2001). To date, about 2,650 species of termites have been described (Kambhampati & Eggleton 2000), and less than 3% of these cause significant economic damage to buildings or related human-made structures (Pearce 1997). A similar proportion are serious pests of crops (Wood 1996). The termite fauna of urban environments is usually depauperate and characterised by wood-feeding species, unlike natural habitats that often support great termite diversity. For example, 136 species have been recorded in a single forest site in Cameroon, 73% of which feed on soil (Jones & Eggleton 2000). The impact of termites on ecosystem processes in natural habitats and in agroforestry systems is likely to be governed by the species composition and abundance of the local termite assemblage. Therefore, to quantify the influence of termites, it is necessary to accurately characterize the structure of that assemblage. In response to the need for standardized methods for sampling insects (Sutton & Collins 1991; Stork & Samways 1995) a termite sampling protocol has been developed. The protocol, described and tested by Jones & Eggleton (2000), produces samples that are representative of the taxonomic and functional diversity of the local termite assemblage. The protocol is based on standardised sampling effort, thus ensuring the samples from different sites are directly comparable.

Termite studies in Borneo

Borneo is the world’s third largest island, and is divided politically between Indonesia, Brunei Darussalam, and the Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak. Almost everything published on the termites of Borneo, whether ecological or taxonomic, describes work undertaken in the north and north-west of the island. Kalimantan covers 73% of the island but the ecological structure and species composition of its termite fauna has never been studied. Our current understanding of Bornean termite assemblages is based almost entirely on studies conducted at just four sites (Figure 13). Danum Valley, in southeast Sabah, has arguably the most intensively studied termite fauna on Borneo, due to the investigations of Eggleton et al., (1997, 1999) and Homathevi (1999). To date, a total of 93 species have been recorded from the Danum Valley area, the highest termite species richness of any site in Southeast Asia (Jones & Eggleton, 2000). The other significant assemblage-level studies have been conducted at Mulu, northern Sarawak (Collins, 1980, 1983, 1984), Maliau Basin, south-central Sabah (Jones et al., 1998; Jones 2000) and Belalong, Brunei (Jones 1996). The taxonomic literature has a similar geographical bias, with most species descriptions and locality records originating from collections made in Sabah (Thapa, 1981) and Sarawak (e.g. Haviland 1898; Ahmad 1968). The survey reported here will help to address this imbalance.

Bioindicators and the assessment of sustainable forestry

The field of bioindication has expanded rapidly over the past two decades as scientists and environmental managers have sought efficient ways of assessing the impact of anthropogenic disturbance on ecosystems. However, the subject is seen by many to lack scientific rigour, partly because policy initiatives are running far ahead of ecological knowledge. Recent reviews (McGeoch 1998; Caro & O’Doherty 1999; Hilty & Merenlender 2000; Lindenmayer et al., 2000) have highlighted many practical short comings, and emphasised two themes that are central to the successful implementation of bioindication. First, the scientific objectives for which the bioindicator is to be used must be clearly defined, as this will determine the criteria employed when selecting suitable bioindicators. Adopting general objectives such as monitoring “ecosystem health” has provoked a heated debate in the literature (e.g. Callicott & Mumford 1997; Simberloff 1998) because the term can be defined in many ways and may be difficult to quantify and interpret. Second, many studies have failed to test the predictive power of the species used, with the result that the efficacy of these species as bioindicators can be questioned. To be accorded the status of bioindicator, a species must indicate a relationship with another biotic or abiotic variable. This relationship should be statistically strong so as to provide a spatially and temporally robust prediction. Unfortunately, the detailed knowledge of species responses that is required to quantify these relationships is not always available, and extrapolation from limited ata may prove spurious when relationships between and within biotic and abiotic variables are non-linear.

Agroforestry Agroforestry in South Kalimantan

Types of Agroforests Agroforestry Practices

in South Kalimantan Province

Mixed Rubber Gardens

This is the major agroforestry system found in all villages visited, covering wide areas, which steadily increase in size. Rubber gardens are part of the shifting cultivation system. Every upland field is planted to tree crops, while the rice seedlings are still small. Besides rubber, this usually includes a variety of fruit tree and other economic tree species , the most prominent of which are durian species (durian, papakin), chempedak, candlenut (kemiri), rambutan (particularly in Panaan) and langsat (particularly in Salikung). While rubber and candlenut are always marketed, the marketing of fruits depends on current prices, the availability of transportation, and on demand. While farmers may also bring the fruits to the market themselves, the marketing sitution causes them frequently to wait for traders to come to their village.

In former times, farmers usually just planted several fruit tree species around the field hut, later forming fruit tree islands (pulau buah) still found in many places. According to customary law (hukum adat), the family who first opened a certain area of primary forest, is the rightful owner of the land, even after it has been left for fallow. This land ownership system was known and respected within and between villages. According to Indonesian national law, however, only land planted in trees crops is regarded as being owned. Only for cultivated land farmers will receive compensation, should the government allocates the area for other uses, including private companies like timber or oil palm plantation firms and government sponsored transmigration programmes. Nowadays, farmers have try to establish a visible sign of their land ownership.

The easiest way to this is in fact, to plant rubber seedlings, which are widely available in already existing rubber gardens. In gardens, which are not regularly cleaned from secondary regrowth, however, survival of rubber seedlings is likely to be low. Each family opens new lands as upland rice fields every year, or at least every second year. Because most land near the village is already owned or planted with rubber, increasingly far away areas are opened. Until the rice has been harvested, the family stays there in a temporary field hut to guard the field from pests. In the consecutive year or two, the old upland field still yields bananas, papaya, cassava (tubers and leaves), vegetables (particularly eggplant and daun katuk, the leaves of a small shrub Sauropus androgynos) and spices (particularly bird chilli, cabe rawit and ginger).

If the farmers plan the garden to play a central role in the household economy and the rubber trees are still small, the garden is cleaned regularly. The intensity and frequency of underbrushing, however, can vary widely. Bp. Meidi of Rantaunato even sprayed his four year old rubber garden regularly with herbicide (‘round up’). He received the capital for this considerable expenses from the sale of the harvest of his extensive, well-managed coffee garden near his house. Far away gardens are frequently not cared for, because for practical reasons the family prefers to focus on their stands located close to the village. However, there are also mature rubber gardens close to the village, which for example in Salikung are not tapped. In this case the reason for not tapping is the tree that the owners prefer to work in the as this is a significant source of income. When young rubber gardens are not cleaned regularly, the survival rate of seedlings is low. Besides providing proof of landownership, the garden still can be cleaned and tapped at any time, if rubber prices improve, or if children marry and are in need of capital. Therefore local rubber gardens in the literature frequently have been termed the “rubber bank”, where the farmers can draw upon in times of need.

The need for a security like this is also obvious for several other reasons. First, the lack of rural credit. Under the present situation, farmers have access to credit only if they are member of a cooperative (KUD). Commonly, however, cooperatives are operational only in some transmigration villages. Second, the insecurity of customary land rights. The status of traditionally owned lands is always less secure than those which have official ownership certificates, but which in rural areas outside densely settled Java and Bali are mostly owned by government-sponsored transmigrants . It is common place, that locally owned, extensively used lands are allocated by the government for other uses: transmigration areas, tree crop plantations, or logging concessions.

This situation is a major factor behind the current expansion of local agriculture. While in former times, primary forests were regarded as common resource by the local people, nowadays there is an attemp to deplete this resource by a variety of groups: logging concessions (HPH), timber plantation companies (HTI), mining enterprises, palm oil plantations, government-sponsored transmigrants and local settlers from adjoining areas. These groups in a way seem to compete for the remaining forests, everybody wants to get a piece as long as there is still some left. Because the local people do not want to be left behind by all other stakeholders, they also try to lay claim to new lands. After all, they have been there first, and it is therefore reasonable that they want to get a piece of the cake, too. Establishing large areas of rubber gardens is their way of claiming land ownership before all forest land is to be divided.

Pepper Gardens

Pepper gardens are mainly found in the area of Salikung. Pepper cultivation in the project area has already been described in detail in the report on estate crops (Bacon, November 2000). Pepper is trained up live Erythrina arborea (dadap) poles, which are planted about two years before the pepper vines. In the stands, usually only some single fruit trees or palms, like aren, coconut and pinang, can be found. The latter do not disturb the pepper plants, because they do not have a large canopy. Because of their small number, the produce of the interplanted trees is mainly for own consumption. In some occasions, also mixed pepper-coffee gardens were observed. In this case, the Erythrina can double-function also as a shade tree for coffee. Compared to the other garden types present in the area, pepper gardens are more intensively managed. The gardens are cleaned from secondary regrowth on a regular basis, and no spontaneous species are allowed to grow between the pepper vines. In the understorey of the pepper gardens, bird chili (cabe rawit), ginger and galangal (kencur) are cultivated. This is a most suitable intercrop, which can profit from the cleanliness of the pepper gardens and the light shade provided by the Erythrina. From the aspect of space available in the pepper gardens, it should be possible to cultivate large amounts of tuber spices in its understorey. Unfavourable prices due to the difficult transport situation, however, still stands in the way of this.

Fruit Tree Gardens

Dayaks have a long tradition of mixed gardens going back to the times before rubber cultivation. Also Banjarese that spontanously migrated to the area appear to have adopted dayak models and mix their rubber with fruit trees. Originating from fruit tree islands that developed around field huts, Dayak have developed mixed fruit tree gardens of sometimes large size. They usually are located close to the village (Doroi, Wanan, Missim), and still can be found in areas of former settlements (fruit tree garden of Bp. Diris, near Rakutat). The consultant found similar structures in Dayak settlements of Sanggau regency, West Kalimantan. Because these gardens have constant productivity, they are usually not cleared and grow to very old ages. Old fruit tree gardens are of very high biodiversity. Besides planted and cultivated species, they also harbour a variety of spontaneous fruit trees and other used plants.

Of particular interest are the various fruit tree species originating from the area, some of which might have a further marketing and development potential. Cherished within the village and at local markets is, for example the fruit buku­buku (Dimocarpus longan ssp. malesianus var. malesianus). It is a close relative of longan (lengkeng), a fruit that in Indonesia is planted mainly in East Java and is highly priced at national and international markets. Other potential fruit tree species might include Ramania (Bouea macrophylla), Kalangkala (Litsea roxburghii), Buah Mundar (Garcinia sp.) and Kapol (Baccaurea dulcis). They are all already marketed locally and said to be of good taste. Besides in fruit tree gardens, most of them are also cultivated to a certain degree within the house compound or in rubber gardens.

Mixed coffee gardens

In all villages besides rubber, coffee is an important cash crop. It is cultivated in a variety of systems. Some farmers have interplanted coffee with rubber. This mixture functions quite well as long as the rubber is still young, because both crops need regular cleaning, and rubber provides some shade to the coffee plants. When the rubber canopy becomes too dense, however, the coffee plants don’t thrive well anymore, and are usually neglected. This mixture but not so often in villages Salikung and Kumap, but has been also observed in hamlet Rakutat (Panaan village). A popular and thriving combination is the cultivation of coffee with bananas on the fertile riverside soils. These kind of gardens were particularly observed in the hamlets Rantaunato (Salikung village), as well as Rakutat and Rampayan (Panaan village) and in Kumap village. Also popular in Salikung, as already mentioned, is the mixture of pepper and coffee under Erythrina arborea